Civil and Building Engineering.

The engineer frequently makes an extensive and thorough investigation prior to selecting of the type and configuration of a pile for a particular project.

The pile must sustain the expected loadings with appropriate safety, and con- struction must be accomplished in a timely manner while complying with local regulations. In some cities, for example, noise is a major concern and regulations may preclude the use of many driven piles. The types of piles and the factors affecting the selection of a particular pile are noted in the following discussion.

Several later chapters address methods for computing the axial and lateral capacity of a pile. The piles may be timber, reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete, structural-steel shapes, steel pipe, or a tapered-steel pipe. The engineer selects the pile type and hammer on the basis of (1) loads to be supported, (2) tolerance of the superstructure to differential settlement, (3) expected life of the project, (4) availability of materials and construction machinery, (5) length of time required for installation, (6) difficulty of construction, (7) ability to make a proper inspection, (8) noise during construction, and (9) cost.

Environmental effects on the material composing the pile must be considered. Steel in some environments will be subjected to corrosion. In offshore practice, some piles may extend through the splash zone, where corrosion must be considered. Two procedures are common: extra-thick steel may be provided to account for progressive loss of the steel with time or a form of cathodic protection may be provided. Timber piles can be treated with creosote to prevent attack from insects, but this does not prevent damage from certain species of marine borers (Grand, 1970). And, as discussed below, special care must be employed in driving reinforced concrete piles to prevent cracking that could lead later to failure due to corrosion of the rebars.
The engineer may need to consider the drift of driven piles during installation. The tips of the piles in a group may move close to each other at full penetration and may actually touch each other during driving. The bending stiffness of the piles relative to the stiffness of the soil and the position of the head of the pile are factors that affect the drift. The closeness of the piles after installation may or may not affect their ability to sustain loading. If the final positions of the piles in a group are important, the engineer may stipulate that preboring be employed.

A large variety of impact hammers are available up to the size required for driving very long piles and down to the smallest that can be driven.

Hammers may be drop-weight, diesel, single-acting steam, or double-acting steam

The structural engineer and the geotechnical engineer may cooperate in studying the relative advantage of a small number of larger piles and a large number of smaller piles. The selection may be dictated by local construction practice.

With the preliminary selection of a pile, an appropriate computer code should be employed in matching the hammer and cushioning to the pile. The cushioning material may be some form of plastic, or wood of various sorts.

Plywood sheets are frequently used as cushioning. The computer code models a compressive wave yielding stress versus time, generated by the impact of the hammer, taking the cushioning into account. The wave travels down the pile and is reflected at the pile tip. For driving against bedrock, a compressive wave is reflected. For driving against very weak soil at the tip, the wave is reflected as a tensile wave. Tension in a reinforced concrete pile can cause cracking that could result in penetration of water, leading to corrosion. Some reinforced concrete piles under bridges have been so damaged due to tensile cracks as to need replacement.

The proper cushion is important. The authors were asked to review a project where the cushioning was provided by sheets of plywood. The plywood was replaced irregularly and actually caught fire on occasion. The result was cracking of some of the reinforced concrete piles due to compressive forces.

One of the authors participated in driving an instrumented, closed-ended steel pipe with a diameter of 6 in. A blow from a drop hammer caused the pile to move down in soft clay but with very little permanent set. Persistent driving was damaging the instrumentation, and the decision was made to use a coiled spring from a rail car as the cushioning. The pile drove readily, with no damage to the instrumentation. The decision to use the soft cushion was made by judgment, but the implementation of a computer code to model the
pile driving would have been useful.

An impact hammer resting on a driven pile is shown in Figure 5.3. A continuous-flight auger is shown that can be used to predrill a small-diameter hole to a given distance to ease the driving into some formations. The photograph shows disturbance to the soil in the vicinity of the pile, which must be considered when computing pile capacity. Vibrations and soil movement due to pile driving can cause severe damage to existing structures and has been investigated in detail (Lacy and Gould, 1985; Lacy and Moskowitz,
1993; Lacy, et al, 1994; Lacy, 1998).

Some piles are driven with vibratory hammers, principally steel sheet piles used for retaining structures. Bearing piles are installed with vibratory techniques in some soils, and vibratory methods are frequently used to pull casings that were installed for the construction of drilled shafts. Vibratory hammers are less noisy than impact hammers and can result in less movement of the soil when driving into some sands.